A Ph.D. degree usually is necessary for independent research, industrial research, and college teaching, as well as for advancement to administrative positions. A master's degree is sufficient for some jobs in basic research, applied research or product development, management, or inspection; it also may qualify one to work as a research technician or as a teacher in an aquarium. The bachelor's degree is adequate for some nonresearch jobs. For example, some graduates with a bachelor's degree start as biological scientists in testing and inspection or get jobs related to biological science, such as technical sales or service representatives. In some cases, graduates with a bachelor's degree are able to work in a laboratory environment on their own projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research assistants, whereas others become biological laboratory technicians or, with courses in education, high school biology teachers. (See the statements elsewhere in the Handbook on clinical laboratory technologists and technicians; science technicians; and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary). Many with a bachelor's degree in biology enter medical, dental, veterinary, or other health profession schools.
In addition to required courses in chemistry and biology, undergraduate biological science majors usually study allied disciplines such as mathematics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Computer courses are essential because employers prefer job applicants who are able to apply computer skills to modeling and simulation tasks and to operate computerized laboratory equipment, particularly in emerging fields such as bioinformatics. Those interested in studying the environment also should take courses in environmental studies and become familiar with current legislation and regulations. Prospective biological scientists who hope to work as marine biologists should have at least a bachelor's degree in a biological or marine science. However, students should not overspecialize in undergraduate study, as knowledge of marine biology often is acquired in graduate study. Most colleges and universities offer bachelor's degrees in biological science, and many offer advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced degrees often emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany, but not all universities offer all curriculums. Larger universities frequently have separate departments specializing in different areas of biological science. For example, a program in botany might cover agronomy, horticulture, or plant pathology. Advanced degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory research, and a thesis or dissertation.
Biological scientists with a Ph.D. often take temporary postdoctoral research positions that provide specialized research experience. Postdoctoral positions may offer the opportunity to publish research findings. A solid record of published research is essential in obtaining a permanent position involving basic research, especially for those seeking a permanent college or university faculty position. In private industry, some may become managers or administrators within the field of biology; others leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administrative, or sales jobs.
Biological scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and be able to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and in writing. Those in private industry, especially those who aspire to management or administrative positions, should possess strong business and communication skills and be familiar with regulatory issues and marketing and management techniques. Those doing field research in remote areas must have physical stamina. Biological scientists also must have patience and self-discipline to conduct long and detailed research projects.
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| No data available. |
| • | Required Level of Education |
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| • | Related Work Experience |
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| • | On-Site Or In-Plant Training |
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| • | On-the-Job Training |
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Programs
| [ save ] | 1. | Anatomy | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of organ systems, tissue structures, and whole bodies together with their cellular and structural components and dynamics. Includes instruction in cell biology and histology, structural biology, molecular mechanics, regional and gross anatomy, embryology, neuroanatomy, endocrinology and secretory dynamics, and applications to such topics as aging and disease conditions. (Moved from 26.0601) | |||
| [ save ] | 2. | Animal Genetics | |
| Matching Occupations: 3 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the genetics of multicellular animal life forms from the experimental, comparative, and clinical (veterinary and medical) viewpoints. Includes instruction in molecular genetics, gene expression, gene regulation, genomics, epigenetic phenomena, DNA recombination and repair, genetic interactions at the microbial and higher levels, and molecular evolution. | |||
| [ save ] | 3. | Animal Physiology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of function, morphology, regulation, and intercellular communications and dynamics within vertebrate and invertebrate in animal species, with comparative applications to homo sapiens and its relatives and antecedents. Includes instruction in reproduction, growth, lactation, digestion, performance, behavioral adaptation, sensory perception, motor action, phylogenetics, biotic and abiotic function, membrane biology, and related aspects of biochemistry and biophysics. | |||
| [ save ] | 4. | Aquatic Biology/Limnology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the ecology and behavior of microbes, plants, and animals inhabiting inland fresh waters such as lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, estuaries, and wetlands. Includes instruction in geology and hydrology; aquatic ecosystems; microbiology; mycology; botany; ichthyology; mammalogy; population biology and biodiversity; studies of specific species, phyla, and habitats; and applications to fields such as natural resources conservation, fisheries science, and biotechnology. | |||
| [ save ] | 5. | Behavioral Sciences | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program with a combined or undifferentiated focus on the social sciences, psychology, and biomedical sciences to study complex problems of human individual and social growth and behavior. | |||
| [ save ] | 6. | Biology and Biological Sciences, General | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A general program of biology at the introductory, basic level or a program in biology or the biological sciences that is undifferentiated as to title or content. Includes instruction in general biology and programs covering a variety of biological specializations. | |||
| [ save ] | 7. | Biometry/Biometrics | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the application of statistics and other computational methods to the study of problems in the biological sciences and related fields in agriculture and natural resources. Includes instruction in computational biology, mathematical statistics, matrix algebra, applied calculus, experimental design, linear modeling, sampling theory, stochastic processes, spatial and temporal analysis, longitudinal analysis, sparse/unbalanced data and complex error, and applications to such topics as population genetics, animal breeding, forest genetics, population dynamics, wildlife biometry, ecology, and agricultural and natural resource management. (Moved from 26.0614) | |||
| [ save ] | 8. | Biostatistics | |
| Matching Occupations: 6 | |||
| A program that focuses on the application of descriptive and inferential statistics to biomedical research and clinical, public health, and industrial issues related to human populations. Includes instruction in mathematical statistics, modeling, clinical trials methodology, disease and survival analysis, longitudinal analysis, missing data analysis, spatial analysis, computer tomography, biostatistics consulting, and applications to such topics as genetics, oncology, pharmacokinetics, physiology, neurobiology, and biophysics. (Moved from 26.0615) | |||
| [ save ] | 9. | Biotechnology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the application of the biological sciences, biochemistry, and genetics to the preparation of new and enhanced agricultural, environmental, clinical, and industrial products, including the commercial exploitation of microbes, plants, and animals. Includes instruction in bioinformatics, gene identification, phylogenetics and comparative genomics, bioinorganic chemistry, immunoassaying, DNA sequencing, xenotransplantation, genetic engineering, industrial microbiology, drug and biologic development, enzyme-based production processes, patent law, biotechnology management and marketing, applicable regulations, and biotechnology ethics. (Moved from 26.0616) | |||
| [ save ] | 10. | Botany/Plant Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of plants, related microbial organisms, and plant habitats and ecosystem relations. Includes instruction in plant anatomy and structure, phytochemistry, cytology, plant genetics, plant morphology and physiology, plant ecology, plant taxonomy and systematics, paleobotany, and applications of biophysics and molecular biology. | |||
| [ save ] | 11. | Botany/Plant Biology, Other | |
| Matching Occupations: 3 | |||
| Any instructional program in botany/plant biology not listed above. | |||
| [ save ] | 12. | Cell Biology and Anatomy | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| An integrated, combined program that focuses on the scientific study of cell structure, function, and dynamics within the context of organismic, regional, and gross anatomical systems. Includes instruction in molecular biology, cell biology and histology, structural biology, anatomy, embryology, endocrinology, and applications to specific systems, diseases, defects, and processes. | |||
| [ save ] | 13. | Cell/Cellular and Molecular Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| An integrated, combined program that focuses on the scientific study of cells, cellular systems, and the molecular basis of cell structure and function. Includes instruction in cell biology, cell chemistry, molecular biology, biophysics, and structural biology. | |||
| [ save ] | 14. | Cell/Cellular Biology and Anatomical Sciences, Other | |
| Matching Occupations: 7 | |||
| Any instructional program in cell/cellular biology and anatomical sciences not listed above. | |||
| [ save ] | 15. | Cell/Cellular Biology and Histology | |
| Matching Occupations: 6 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the structure, function, and regulation of cells as individual units and as components of larger systems. Includes instruction in cell chemistry, cellular dynamics, cellular replication and reproduction, cell anatomy, membrane function, organelles, cell adhesion and extracellular matrices, cell dynamics and motility, meiosis and mytosis, signal transduction, regulation, recognition and defense mechanisms, the cell cycle, cell metabolism and respiration, gene expression, and studies of cell types and characteristics. | |||
| [ save ] | 16. | Conservation Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the application of the biological sciences to the specific problems of biodiversity, species preservation, ecological sustainability, and habitat fragmentation in the face of advancing human social, economic, and industrial pressures. Includes instruction in ecology, environmental science, biological systems, extinction theory, human-animal and human-plant interaction, ecosystem science and management, wetland conservation, field biology, forest and wildlife biology, and natural history. | |||
| [ save ] | 17. | Developmental Biology and Embryology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of embryology, development, and growth of animals and human beings. Includes instruction in fertilization, oogenesis, histogenesis, gastrulation, and cell differentiation; embryological development including organ and pattern formation, morphogenesis, gene regulation, cell lineage, and fate maps; disease and defect studies; transgenic and evolutionary models of growth and development; and applications to specific organisms and phyla. | |||
| [ save ] | 18. | Ecology | |
| Matching Occupations: 6 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the relationships and interactions of small-scale biological systems, such as organisms, to each other, to complex and whole systems, and to the physical and other non-biological aspects of their environments. Includes instruction in biogeochemistry; landscape and/or marine/aquatic dynamics; decomposition; global and regional elemental budgets; biotic and abiotic regulation of nutrient cycles; ecophysiology; ecosystem resilience, disturbance, and succession; community and habitat dynamics; organismal interactions (co-evolution, competition, predation); paleoecology, and evolutionary ecology. (Moved from 26.0603) | |||
| [ save ] | 19. | Ecology, Evolution, Systematics & Population Biology, Other | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| Ecology, Evolution, Systematics and Population Biology, Other. Any instructional program in ecology, evolution, and systematics not listed above. | |||
| [ save ] | 20. | Entomology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of insect species and populations in respect of their life cycles, morphology, genetics, physiology, ecology, taxonomy, population dynamics, and environmental and economic impacts. Includes instruction in applicable biological and physical sciences as well as insect toxicology and the biochemical control of insect populations. | |||
| [ save ] | 21. | Environmental Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the origins, functions, relationships, interactions, and natural history of living populations, communities, species, and ecosystems in relation to dynamic environmental processes. Includes instruction in biodiversity, molecular genetic and genomic evolution, mesoscale ecology, computational biology and modeling, conservation biology, local and global environmental change, and restoration ecology. | |||
| [ save ] | 22. | Evolutionary Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the genetic, developmental, functional, and morphological patterns and processes, and theoretical principles; and the emergence and mutation of organisms over time. Includes instruction in molecular and morphological systematics; genetics and development; evolutionary transformation; paleobiology and paleontology; morphogenesis; mutation; locomotor, biomechanical and craniodental form and function; evolutionary theory; and systematic biology. (Moved from 26.0617) | |||
| [ save ] | 23. | Genetics, General | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A general program that focuses on the scientific study of the organization, recombination, function, regulation, and transmission of heritable information in biological organisms at all levels of complexity. Includes instruction in Mendelian genetics, mechanisms of gene regulation, chromosome structure and replication, epigenetic phenomena, DNA repair and recombination, sex determination, genetic interactions between genomes, and molecular evolution. | |||
| [ save ] | 24. | Genetics, Other | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| Any instructional program in genetics not listed above. | |||
| [ save ] | 25. | Immunology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on scientific study of the biological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of disease, host-pathogen interactions, and host response to disease. Includes instruction in antigen and antibody structure and function, effector mechanisms, receptors, histocompatibility, host-pathogen recognition, disease modeling, autoimmune systems, antibody formation, cytotoxic responses, regulation of immune response, virulence determinants, intercellular signalling, immunosuppression, immunotherapy, immunogenetics, disease markers, transplantation, antibody humanization, and microbial pathogenesis. (Moved from 26.0618) | |||
| [ save ] | 26. | Marine Biology and Biological Oceanography | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the ecology and behavior of microbes, plants, and animals inhabiting oceans, coastal waters, and saltwater wetlands and their interactions with the physical environment. Includes instruction in chemical, physical, and geological oceanography; molecular, cellular, and biochemical studies; marine microbiology; marine botany; ichthyology; mammalogy; marine population dynamics and biodiversity; reproductive biology; studies of specific species, phyla, habitats, and ecosystems; marine paleocology and palentology; and applications to fields such as fisheries science and biotechnology. (Moved from 26.0607) | |||
| [ save ] | 27. | Medical Microbiology and Bacteriology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of pathogenic bacteria that are significant factors in causing or facilitating human disease. Includes instruction in the pathogenesis of bacterial diseases, bacterial genetics and physiology, bacterial anatomy and structure, antigens, bacterial reproduction, bacterial adhesion, phagocytes, and the identification of new or mutated bacteria and bacterial agents. | |||
| [ save ] | 28. | Microbial and Eukaryotic Genetics | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the genetics of viruses, infectious agents, organelles, nuclear genomes, eubacteria, archaebacteria, and eukaryotic organisms. Includes instruction in molecular genetics and evolution; parasitic and symbiotic interaction at the genetic level; epigenetic phenomena; microbial interactions; and genomics. | |||
| [ save ] | 29. | Molecular Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the structure and function of biological macromolecules and the role of molecular constituents and mechanisms in supramolecular assemblies and cells. Includes instruction in such topics as molecular signalling and transduction, regulation of cell growth, enzyme substrates and mechanisms of enzyme action, DNA-protein interaction, and applications to fields such as biotechnology, genetics, cell biology, and physiology. (Moved from 26.0402) | |||
| [ save ] | 30. | Molecular Genetics | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the molecular mechanisms regulating gene expression, information transfer, replication, and stability in DNA and RNA. Includes instruction in prokaryotic genetics and gene expression; development and evolution of gene sequences and anatomical forms; biochemistry of gene replication and recombination; transcription and processing; genomics; chromatin architecture; and DNA/RNA structure. | |||
| [ save ] | 31. | Mycology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of fungi, lichenous plants, eukaryotic microorganisms, myxomycetes, and plasmodiophorales and their relationship to diseases in higher plants, animals, and human beings as well as to pharmacologically useful products. Includes instruction in cell and molecular biology; histopathology; fungal growth and behavior; environmental mycology; antifungal sensitivity; mycoses; pathogens and pathogenesis; pharmacological properties; and computer and laboratory research methods. | |||
| [ save ] | 32. | Neuroanatomy | |
| Matching Occupations: 3 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of structure and function of the brain and central nervous system. Includes instruction in the molecular biology of neural cells and circuits, cognitive biology, neural transmitters and receptors, neuronal signalling and control of physical function, membrane and synapse structure and communication, autonomic function, nervous system circuitry and mapping, anatomy of neurological disease and disorders, brain studies, protein chemistry, and computational biology. | |||
| [ save ] | 33. | Neuroscience | |
| Matching Occupations: 3 | |||
| A program that focuses on the interdisciplinary scientific study of the molecular, structural, physiologic, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of the brain and nervous system. Includes instruction in molecular and cellular neuroscience, brain science, anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system, molecular and biochemical bases of information processing, behavioral neuroscience, biology of neuropsychiatric disorders, and applications to the clinical sciences and biomedical engineering. (Moved from 26.0608) | |||
| [ save ] | 34. | Nutrition Sciences | |
| Matching Occupations: 6 | |||
| A scientific program that focuses on the utilization of food for human growth and metabolism, in both normal and dysfunctional states, from the interdisciplinary perspective of the agricultural, human, biological, and biomedical sciences. Includes instruction in food science, biochemistry, physiology, dietetics, food and nutrition studies, biotechnology, biophysics, and the clinical sciences. (Moved from 26.0609) | |||
| [ save ] | 35. | Parasitology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of biological organisms living in ecologically exploitative and competitive relationships with host organisms, and the role of parasites in causing injury, disease, and environmental damage. Includes instruction in vector biology, immunoparasitology, medical parasitology, molecular biology of parasitical associations, veterinary and comparative parasitology, chemotherapeutics, and ecological and systematic parasitology. (Moved from 26.0610) | |||
| [ save ] | 36. | Pathology/Experimental Pathology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the expression, initiation, maintenance and progression of tissue injury and disease, including death, and the relationship of pathogenesis to fundamental molecular and cellular mechanisms. Includes instruction in immunology, microbiology, gene expression, inflammation, cell injury, apoptosis, immunopathology, molecular markers of disease and toxins, neoplasia, growth regulation, and organ- and system- specific investigations. | |||
| [ save ] | 37. | Pharmacology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of drug interactions on biological systems and organisms and the sources, chemical properties, biological effects, and therapeutic uses of drugs. Includes instruction in pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, drug therapeutics, drug action, bodily responses to drug events, biochemical proliferation and differentiation, apoptosis, cell biology, medicinal chemistry, and studies of specific drugs and drug interactions. (Moved from 26.0705) | |||
| [ save ] | 38. | Photobiology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the effects of light energy on living organisms, the manufacture and processing of luminescence by organisms, and the uses of light in biological research. Includes instruction in bioluminescence, chronobiology, photomedicine, environmental photobiology, organic photochemistry, photomorphogenesis, photoreceptors and photosensitization, molecular mechanics of photosynthesis, phototechnology, vision, ultraviolet radiation, radiation physics, and spectral research methods. | |||
| [ save ] | 39. | Plant Genetics | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the genetics of multicellular plants and fungi as related to botanical research as well as to applications in comparative genetics, ecology and evolutionary studies, clinical studies, and industrial research. Includes instruction in molecular genetics, gene expression, gene regulation, genomics, epigenetic phenomena, DNA recombination and repair, genetic interactions at the microbial and higher levels, and molecular evolution. | |||
| [ save ] | 40. | Plant Molecular Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the application of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics to the study of biomolecular structures, functions, and processes specific to plants and plant substances. Includes instruction in the biochemistry of plant cells, nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions, molecular cytostructures, photosynthesis, plant molecular genetics, and the molecular biology of plant diseases. | |||
| [ save ] | 41. | Plant Pathology/Phytopathology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of plant diseases and plant health, and the development of disease control mechanisms. Includes instruction in plant anatomy and physiology; pathogenesis; molecular plant virology; molecular genetics; bacterial epidemiology; causal agent identification; host/agent interactions; disease resistance and response mechanisms; developing plant disease treatments; disease prevention; and disease physiology and control. | |||
| [ save ] | 42. | Plant Physiology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of plant internal dynamics and systems, plant- environment interaction, and plant life cycles and processes. Includes instruction in cell and molecular biology; plant nutrition; plant respiration; plant growth, behavior, and reproduction; photosynthesis; plant systemics; and ecology. | |||
| [ save ] | 43. | Population Biology | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of the natural history, life cycle behavior, and ecosystem dynamics of single species and multi- species communities, and the patterns and causes of diversity within and among such populations. Includes instruction in biostatistics, population dynamics, population and quantitative genetics, RNA and DNA sequences, genomics, evolutionary ecology, natural adaptation and hybridization, geographic differentiation, life history and life cycle studies, and animal and plant demography. | |||
| [ save ] | 44. | Radiation Biology/Radiobiology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the effects of radiation on organisms and biological systems. Includes instruction in particle physics, ionization, and biophysics of radiation perturbations, cellular and organismic repair systems, genetic and pathological effects of radiation, and the measurement of radiation dosages. (Moved from 26.0611) | |||
| [ save ] | 45. | Systematic Biology/Biological Systematics | |
| Matching Occupations: 2 | |||
| A program that focuses on the theoretical and empirical study of the principles and processes underlying the origin and maintenance of biological taxonomic diversity; related biogeographical and evolutionary patterns; and studies of the origin, diversification, distribution, and extinction of species and lineages. Includes instruction in phylogenetic analysis, structural development and molecular evolution, classification and taxonomic theory, biological nomenclature, taxonomic assignment, evolutionary theory, biological surveys and inventories, computer modeling, and database building. | |||
| [ save ] | 46. | Toxicology | |
| Matching Occupations: 5 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of poisons and other biohazards; their interactions with organisms and their food and respiratory systems; and their prevention, management, and counteraction. Includes instruction in toxicological biochemistry, toxic agents and transporters, toxin fate, toxicokinetics and metabolism, toxin classification, molecular toxic mechanisms, extracellular matrices and cell function, bacterial pathogenesis and mutagenesis, pathophysiology and apoptosis, cell stress and injury, studies of specific toxins, and studies of specific organ systems and physiological functions in relation to toxicological problems. (Moved from 26.0612) | |||
| [ save ] | 47. | Virology | |
| Matching Occupations: 4 | |||
| A program that focuses on the scientific study of subcellular pieces of genetic material, called viruses, that inhabit living cells in parasitical relationships and their role in disease. Includes instruction in virus taxonomy and systematics, viral structures, viral genetics, prions, virus/host cell interaction, viral pathogenesis, and applications to specific topics such as cancer biology. (Moved from 26.0619) | |||
Knowledge
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Skills
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